By Craig Manners
29th May 2006
ABSTRACT
This essay seeks to investigate the successes and failures of the work of David Livingstone from the perspective of his cross-cultural relationships. A man blessed with gifts enabling him to excel in the area of human relationships, David Livingstone is a highly suitable candidate to investigate this topic. He developed many relationships during his long career as a missionary and it is argued here that Livingstone had many more successes than failures. Of the reported failures, some are a result of jealous co-workers, some are unfounded, and some are the result of his own human faults and oversight.
Introduction
David Livingstone (1813-1873) is recognised in history as one of the greatest explorers the world has ever known. He has been compared with the likes of Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus and Neil Armstrong. It is rare for a man of God to be such a giant of both the secular and the Christian worlds. Livingstone was used by God to open up Africa to both civilization and more importantly to the truth about Jesus Christ. [1]
This article seeks to learn about Livingstone by focussing on the successes and failures of his life, especially from the perspective of his cross-cultural relationships. A man blessed with gifts enabling him to excel in the area of human relationships, David Livingstone developed many relationships during his long career as a missionary and explorer and it is argued here that Livingstone had many more successes than failures. Of the reported failures, some are a result of jealous co-workers, some are unfounded, and some are the result of his own human faults and oversight.
Certainly, there are many types of relationships one has when involved in cross-cultural ministry. Livingstone maintained a wide range of human relationships and in general seemed to be gifted with inter-personal skills on this front.
Not to discount the importance of his pre-departure relationships, we begin h
with a brief glimpse of some of the influencing relationships beginning mostly from the time of his ordination as a missionary.[2]
HOME RELATIONSHIPS
Initially[3] Livingstone seemed to enjoy a workable relationship with the Directors of the London Missionary Society. At times they endowed him with independence and trusted his decisions, for which Livingstone was very thankful: “I have much pleasure in acknowledging my obligations to the gentlemen composing that body for always acting in an enlightened spirit, and with as much liberality as their constitution would allow.”[4]
Livingstone demonstrated well, throughout his career, the importance of relationships back home. Much of his life-work is available to us today through his journals,[5] his books and, sometimes in a more telling form through the letters he wrote to people back home. [6]
One of the first letters he wrote back home was to his friend, Rev. G.D. Watt, who himself was preparing to become a missionary. From this letter we can ascertain the immediate dislike Livingstone had for the poor behaviour of some Europeans overseas.[7]
Proving his ability to assess an inter-relational situation very quickly, he soon discerned there were two types of allegiance among the missionaries in Cape Town: one toward the colonists and one toward the natives. After noticing the poor behaviour of some of the missionaries, Livingstone instinctively chose the side defending the natives against the “unrighteous encroachments of the settlers”.[8]
SECRETS OF HIS SUCCESS
I believe the main reason for his successful relations with people was because God had put his “goodness” and “comeliness” upon him.[9] I also think Livingstone himself would have attributed his overall relationship skills to this.
One of the key ingredients of his successful relationships was no doubt the respect and dignity with which he treated people in general, and Africans in particular. He would have stood out as being very different from many of his peers at the time, both the other missionaries, as well as the Dutch and Portuguese[10] colonists, many of whom may have looked down on the natives as being second class humans.
Time and again it seems evident that the way he viewed all men as having equal dignity earned him a powerful influence everywhere he went. His, “considerate and conciliatory”[11] treatment of everyone from chiefs to ordinary people was repaid by trust and respect.[12] Livingstone’s “genial address, simple and fearless manner, and transparent kindliness formed a spell which rarely failed.”[13]
His love of humour and playful way of dealing with people helped to break the ice and made people feel at ease with him. He was polite, had a respectful way of talking to people and was very forgiving.[14]
He believed in the “power of kindness”,[15] showed no condescension, and saw in black and white “a brother man, made in the image of God, and therefore to be treated with courtesy and respect.”[16]
He had a love for souls which is evident in men of God throughout the generations. There was a genuine “depth and tenderness of his love”, which was reciprocated by, “the affection which these poor fellows bore him in return.”[17] Personally, I think this is the key aspect which provided Livingstone with a winning way with nearly everyone he met.[18]
Another of his character traits which goes hand in hand with his respect for people, and which no doubt contributed to his gift for forming lasting relationships, was his deep concern for justice and human rights. This is nowhere better illustrated than in regard to his concern for, and efforts in dismantling, the slave trade. He often mentioned this in his letters, and this assisted in alerting the world to this atrocious situation, which Livingston called "the open sore of Africa."[19]
For the first nine years Livingstone devoted himself to evangelising the “uncivilized and rude barbarians”[20] in the Bakuena[21] country, about 900 miles north of Cape Town. He initially stayed in the home of his future father-in-law, Mr. Robert Moffat,[22] but soon turned his attention to the north.
Livingstone always endeavoured to learn the local languages and customs, an act which engendered much respect from the natives. For example, he once spent six months in isolation near Shokuane[23] learning all he could about the language and culture of the natives, especially the group called the Bakwains. Of this six-month period he says it, “has proved of incalculable advantage in my intercourse with them ever since.”[24]
Another aspect that was advantageous was his determination to be as useful as possible, maybe as a way of winning over the people. Some of the tasks tackled during his missionary life include such things as building a canal, gardening, building houses, mechanical work and working with iron and steel.[25] His medical knowledge was an important relationship tool too, allowing him access which may otherwise not have been available.[26]
He formed many robust relationships with native chiefs. These included Sekomi, a chief of the Bamangwato, who requested from Livingstone a potion of sorts to change his heart.[27] Salvation in a bottle! Another chief, of the Bakaa, a tribe which had murdered a trader and his company, was won over by Livingstone’s manner, and the missionary was even granted an escort by the chief’s son upon departing from them.[28]
One of the greatest friendships[29] Livingstone formed in Africa was with Sechele, the chief of the Bakwains, who, upon being told the Gospel remarked to Livingstone: “Since it is true that all who die unforgiven are lost forever, why did your nation not come to tell us of it before now?”[30]
Livingstone spoke of the two men being “drawn” [31] to each other and of his remarkable intelligence. In 1844 Livingstone wrote to the Directors with some good news about his friend Sechele: “An event that excited more open enmity than any other was the profession of faith and subsequent reception of the chief into the church.”[32]
Upon being convicted he had too many wives, Sechele sent most of them away, in a kind and generous manner, but their families were angry and became bitter enemies. However, Sechele was later to become an asset to the spreading of the gospel as a teacher of his people.[33] He also sent some of his own children to be educated by Livingstone’s father-in-law, thus extending the future influence from his conversion.[34]
It was not only the chiefs Livingstone befriended. He made friends with everyone he came in contact with. His honesty, kindness, and obvious respect for them resulted in the natives generally placing in Livingstone a great deal of trust.[35]
Two close relationships he formed in Africa were with two of his attendants, Susi and Chumah, “who had been with him long and loved him well.”[36] On at least one occasion they were the only servants to stick with Livingstone in the face of hardship.[37]
Upon Livingstone’s death from fever and an aggravated form of dysentery,[38] they were determined to convey his body to Zanzibar, something they finally achieved after nine perilous and difficult months, demonstrating, I believe, the genuineness of their love and affection for this great man. Most servants would have simply up and left as soon as the source of employment had disappeared.[39]
Remarking on the relationship between the natives and the missionaries, Livingstone said his group exercised no authority or control over the natives at all but simply attempted to influence them by friendly persuasion and by using “kind conversation as well as…public instruction.”[40]
Although Livingstone is remembered much as a pioneer, he was also successfully involved in the work of evangelism. A letter to his father on 13th July, 1842, shows his knack for developing relationships was also being put to good use to immediate effect by the Lord: “Souls are gathering in continually… Twenty-four were added to the Church last month...”[41]
FAMILY
As used by God as he was, Livingstone was still a mere man, and as such he had his failings. One of the most often cited is his apparent neglect of his family.
Some would say this was biblically justified because he was so devoted to God’s work,[42] however when one considers his family was also God’s work for him, one can easily agree this was indeed an area of failure.
His children appear to have led a life somewhat distant from their father and probably came to know him through the newspapers, as they were raised by “Trustees” in England.[43] However, it can be ascertained from Livingstone’s writings he had an obvious love and concern for his wife and children.[44]
In fairness to him I would note it was culturally common in his era for children to be raised away from home in boarding schools or by people other than the parents, such as governesses. Upon reflection of his life, one of his greatest regrets was that he did not devote more time to playing with his children.[45]
Livingstone’s wife Mary was a very capable woman, making butter, soap, candles and clothes,[46] as well as teaching children. [47]They enjoyed a sporadically happy marriage and family life[48] which began well at Mabotsa, but this was not to last.
Livingstone soon had a painful and bitter clash with a fellow missionary and was accused of “acting unfairly”, and “assuming to himself more than was his due.”[49] These charges against him were used to discredit Livingstone among missionaries and his Directors back home in England.
Although he felt the accusations were unjust, rather than allow a scandal to develop in front of the native unbelievers he decided to leave Mabotsa, the house, school building and gardens which he had built himself and which had cost him dearly financially. No doubt with the sour taste of knowing that the man who would now enjoy the fruits of his labour was his unjust accuser,[50] he and his bride departed for a new home. Showing the mark of a true citizen of Heaven he wrote, “paradise will make amends for all of our privations and sorrows here.”[51]
His new home was to be 40 miles away, where his friend Sechele invited him to come and be his missionary. He did not remain here, in Chonuane, for very long however, due to lack of rain, and soon departed for Kolobeng. His strong relationship with the natives can be seen by their reaction to the news that he was leaving: the following morning they were all preparing to go with him![52] This they did, including Sechele, who all packed up and accompanied Livingstone to Kolobeng.[53]
Livingstone had a strained relationship with the Boers and in April 1852, he decided that because the Boers would be an obstruction to teaching the natives at Kolobeng, he would continue his northward explorations. To protect his family from this unhealthy region he decided to send them home to England and return alone to continue the work. This absence was intended to be for two years, however it was closer to five years. [54]
One of the other long absences endured by Livingstone and his wife was for four years from 1858 when she had returned to Scotland to be with their children. Following a period of great loneliness, depression and intense longing for her husband, she returned to Africa in January 1862.
Gossip was another area of distress to Livingstone. He endured rumours of all sorts, some which would end up in newspapers in England and no doubt be enlarged by the media there. Some were very personal and close to home, one time even involving rumours and slander about Mary, apparently spread by the missionary women, which he was quick to dismiss out of hand but which caused him and Mary much distress.[55]
In spite of this, he and Mary were very close in the weeks following. Once again, their happiness was not to last, as Mary’s “eyes were closed in the sleep of death”[56] from malaria on 27th April, 1862 at Shupanga. This caused much despair and sadness for Livingstone, who appeared paralysed by grief.[57]
Failures, FLAWS AND FELLOW MISSIONARIES
Apart from family problems, Livingstone had arguments, disagreements and personality clashes with various people, as one would expect in difficult circumstances and conditions. When travelling and establishing new mission centres there is the almost constant need for decisions to be made. In this environment it is important to have strong leadership. With this come power struggles, disagreements and heated disputes. As you would expect, given the environment of pioneering Africa, many of the newly arriving missionaries also had strong personalities.[58]
Possibly the greatest failure that Livingstone himself may admit as such, was in the summer of 1861. He shot, and possibly killed, one or more of the violent slave-traders called the Ajawas, who were marching captured slaves through Malawi as well as attempting to enslave some of the local Manganja,[59] whom Livingstone was trying to evangelise. He felt deeply the consequences of his actions, as evident from a comment in one of his letters, “the shepherd ought not to kill his own sheep.”[60]
As far as Livingstone’s failings which his companions recorded, one considered his “greatest flaw”[61] was his compulsion. He was incredibly determined, a trait which I would prefer to see as being a gift rather than a flaw, however one of his most loyal companions, Dr. John Kirk, said it made him “a most unsafe leader. He never thinks of getting back. All he cares for is accomplishing his object at any risk whatever.”[62]
Another of his numerous companions was fellow missionary Bishop Charles Mackenzie. Not long after meeting up with Livingstone and Kirk in February 1861,[63] the three men were arguing about which direction to travel in and what they were going to do. Mackenzie was so incensed he even drafted a formal letter refusing to go where Livingstone and Kirk wanted to go!
This example was later used by many writers to insist that Livingstone was too authoritarian and could not get on with anyone who disagreed with him. However they over-looked the ongoing and enduring friendship of these men, albeit with their fair share of ups and downs.[64]
Once, when approaching a Yao[65] settlement near Zomba, Livingstone had in his group a number of Manganja (from what is now the Chikwawa[66] region of Malawi). Animosity between the two tribes[67] resulted in fighting between them during which Livingstone’s men killed six Yao. [68]
Livingstone warned Mackenzie they should not get involved in a Yao-Manganja war, and was still hopeful of evangelising the Yao peacefully. However after Livingstone’s departure, Mackenzie disregarded this advice and became involved in a series of wars against the Yao on the side of the Manganja. Many of Livingstone’s critics blamed these wars entirely on Livingstone. [69]
After much hardship, Livingstone’s brother Charles requested he be allowed to return home to England, a request granted by Livingstone, who also suggested that Kirk, who had long wanted to return home, should leave at the same time.
Kirk allegedly wrote quite disparagingly about Livingstone for some time after his return to England, even though Livingstone maintained he was a friend, even naming a mountain range after him in Malawi, called Kirks Range.[70] His apparent criticism was used to publicly attack Livingstone as being incompetent and even dishonest. One wonders how much of this was invented or dramatised by the media or heightened by jealousy!
Enjoying periods of positive publicity, he also received much negative publicity in England, depending, I think, on the mood of the fickle media.[71] Another missionary, James Stewart, returned to England and apparently added to this negative publicity as an active critic of Livingstone. Yet he was thought of highly enough by Livingstone to have been requested to conduct the funeral service for Mary![72]
Stewart seemed to be in sharp disagreement about the route which Livingstone had decided on to open trade to Malawi. However, 12 years later Stewart himself was to organise the team which successfully established the Livingstonia mission using that very route. [73]
A COMMENT FROM A SCEPTIC
Often a good source of material with which to bring balance to a story is from the sceptics of the subject. One of England’s biggest sceptics of missionary work in general in Livingstone’s day was Charles Dickens. In 1858, having read Livingstone’s “Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa”, Dickens wrote the following:
“I have been following a narrative of great dangers and trials, encountered in a good cause, by as honest and as courageous a man as ever lived... Dr. Livingstone's sensible independence of all those mischievous sectarian influences … and his fearless recognition of the absolute necessity of associating every legitimate aid, which this world's wisdom can give, with the work of preaching the Gospel to heathen listeners, are merits without parallel in the previous history of Missionary Literature....”[74]
A COMMENT FROM A FRIEND
Newspaper reporter and soon to become good friend, Henry Stanley, wrote much in praise of Livingstone. “God grant that if ever you take to travelling in Africa you will get as noble and true a man for your companion as David Livingstone!”[75]
“In him religion exhibits its loveliest features: it governs his conduct, not only towards his servants, but toward the natives, the bigoted Mohammedans, and all who come in contact with him.”[76]
Stanley records details such as how every Sunday Livingstone would gather his flock and conduct worship services in the local language. Livingstone himself did not consider he had great preaching gifts, but I think a more powerful form of evangelism came from Livingstone’s life itself, as is evident from the following comment from Stanley: “In 1871 I went to him as prejudiced as the biggest atheist in London…mine was awakened seeing his piety, his gentleness, zeal, his earnest, and how he went quietly about his business, I was converted by him, although he had not tried to do it.”[77]
CONCLUSION
I would consider it to be quite normal that Livingstone had his share of relationship problems, misunderstandings, difficulties, fears and pressures.
[78] Overall, I would conclude that given the prolific number of relationships he established, the personality clashes, misunderstandings and other problems pale into insignificance when compared with the overwhelming majority of highly successful and enduring relationships.
Given the huge success of this man and his relationships, it really is not surprising to find that when he died he was given the longest funeral procession in history by the natives in Africa, as well as bringing London to a halt on 18th April, 1874 when, after his body was returned to England,[79] he was honoured by being buried at Westminster Abbey.[80]
What can we learn from Livingstone’s life? We can learn that imitating Christ works, even though ours can only ever be a weak imitation at best!
Bibliography:
Books:
Blaikie W.G. David Livingston, Heroes of the Faith. New Jersey: Barbour and Company, 1986.
Montefiore-Brice A. David Livingstone-His Labours and His Legacy. London: Partridge & Co.
Northcott C. Robert Moffat-Pioneer in Africa. London:Lutterworth, 1961, 173
Ross A.C. David Livingstone-Mission and Empire. London: Hambledon and London, 2002.
Stock S.G. Missionary Heroes of Africa. London: LMS, 1897.
Worcester J.H Jr. David Livingstone-First to Cross Africa with the Gospel. Chicago: Moody Press.
World Wide Web:
e-books:
Livingstone D, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa. Downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstonedetext97mtrav10.html
Livingstone D, The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death, (Vol I), edited by Horace Waller. Downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstoned1667216672-8.html
Livingstone D, The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death, (Vol II), edited by Horace Waller. Downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 20th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstoned1702417024-8.html
Livingstone D, Zambesi Expedition, downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstonedetext01zambs10.html
WEBSITES:
http://www.believersweb.org/view.cfm?ID=74
www.wholesomewords.org/biography/biorplivingstone.html
http://www.mrdowling.com/610-livingstone.html
http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page32.html
www.wholesomewords.org/missions/bliving11.html
http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page19.html from the source: David Livingstone: his life and his letters by George Seaver, 1957
Footnotes:
[1] http://www.believersweb.org/view.cfm?ID=74
[2] He was ordained on the 20th November 1840 in London and then departed England for Cape Town on board the ship “George” on the 8th December. W.G. Blaikie, David Livingstone, Heroes of the Faith (New Jersey: Barbour and Company, 1986) 53
[3] In later years there were some stresses in this relationship.
[4]Livingstone D, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, 63
downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstonedetext97mtrav10.html
[5] His first journals were sent home with Stanley and his remaining later ones survived due to the safekeeping by his native servants Chumah and Susi. Livingstone D, The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death Vol I, edited by Horace Waller. Downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstoned1667216672-8.html
[6] One aspect of Livingstone’s character, evident in his writing, was his honesty. This, along with his devoted spiritual side, made him an insightful and trustworthy recorder of events, especially those surrounding his relationships. Blaikie, 54
[7] Blaikie, 53
[8] This was to become evident also in his future relationships. Blaikie, 55
[9] Livingstone D, The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death, (Vol II), edited by Horace Waller, 66 - Downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 20th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstoned1702417024-8.html
[10] Livingstone was appalled by the way the Dutch and Portuguese colonists treated the African people. http://www.mrdowling.com/610-livingstone.html
[11] Blaikie, 61
[12] He stood out in many different ways, such as insisting on paying for lodgings with natives, whereas the Arabs never did. Livingstone, The Last Journals Vol II, 25
[13] Blaikie, 65
[14] Worcester J.H Jr, David Livingstone-First to Cross Africa with the Gospel (Chicago: Moody Press), 119
[15] Worcester, 116
[16] Worcester, 117
[17] Blaikie, 78
[18] His respect for all people was evident also in the way he treated even those with whom he had differences. One such instance was when the Portuguese were under heavy attack from some rebels on the Zambesi expedition and Livingstone put himself in great danger to save the life of the Portuguese Governor. Livingstone D, Zambesi Expedition, 12 - downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstonedetext01zambs10.html
[19] http://www.mrdowling.com/610-livingstone.html
[20] www.wholesomewords.org/missions/bliving11.html
[21] Also referred to as the Bakwain country by Livingstone, and as Bechuana by others such as Blaikie. Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 21
[22] Livingstone had originally desired to go to China, but at a meeting in Aldersgate Street in London, when Livingstone was 27, he heard Moffat speak about Africa and this sealed his new direction. C Northcott, Robert Moffat-Pioneer in Africa, (London:Lutterworth, 1961) 173
[23] Where Sechele lived. Livingstone. Missionary Travels, 21
[24] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 21
[25] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 27
[26] Blaikie, 65
[27] Blaikie, 63
[28] Blaikie, 64
[29] Worcester, 18
[30] Blaikie, 69
[31] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 23
[32] Blaikie, 104
[33] S.G Stock, Missionary Heroes of Africa. (London:LMS, 1897), 78; and Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 23
[34] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 74
[35] One such example is a group from chief Sekeletu who upon hearing of his approach sought out Livingstone to ask how much the price of a horse ought to be. Not trusting the white traders, who had charged 6 tusks per horse, they had heard of Livingstone and were happy to trust him as a fair man. Livingstone, Zambesi Expedition, 74
[36] Worcester, 103
[37] Livingstone, The Last Journals Vol II, 25
[38] A Montefiore-Brice, David Livingstone-His Labours and His Legacy, (London: Partridge & Co) 133
[39] Chuma and Susi were later brought to England where they were of assistance to Horace Waller in the editing of “The Last Journals”. Livingstone, The Last Journals Vol I, 5
[40] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 26
[41] Blaikie, 68. However, the conversions were not consistent, and there were times when he despaired at their scarcity. Blaikie, 93
[42] As does the article at: http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page19.html from the source: David Livingstone: his life and his letters by George Seaver, 1957
[43] Ross A.C, David Livingstone-Mission and Empire (London: Hambledon and London, 2002), 188
[44] On one occasion, for example, he completely changed his travel plans to take his sick children into a climate more conducive to rehabilitation. Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 53
[45] A problem he puts down to being, “generally so exhausted by the mental and manual labour of the day that in the evening there was no fun left in me.” www.wholesomewords.org/missions/bliving11.html
[46] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 27
[47] www.wholesomewords.org/missions/bliving11.html
[48] Sporadically because he was away from his family for long periods of times and seemed to have his priorities wrong. He correctly had God as his first priority but then placed his work before his family, no doubt much to their detriment. When they were together however they were very happy.
[49] Blaikie, 91
[50] “The brother with whom he had the difference lived to manifest a very different spirit.” Blaikie, 92
[51] Blaikie, 92
[52] Worcester, 21
[53] Stock, 76
[54] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 61
[55] Ross, 177-178 and Worcester, 68
[56] Livingstone, Zambesi Expedition, 114
[57] He wrote many letters during the following weeks, many reflecting his deep love for Mary, and despite their many years of separation, showing that it was indeed a strong relationship. Ross, 179
[58] The nature of the pioneering and adventurous mission work in Africa would have attracted fairly tough people, many possibly hoping to make a name for themselves, having been reading about all of Livingstone’s adventures, and many being natural leaders themselves, therefore leading to clashes.
[59] Described by Livingstone as in their “primitive state” the Manganja would reciprocate gifts generously, eg, a piece of cloth for a goat. Livingstone, The Last Journals Vol I, 60
[60] http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page19.html
[61] http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page19.html
[62] Kirk once wrote: I can come to no other conclusion than that Dr L. is out of his mind”. See Ross 180 and http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page19.html
[63] He arrived on the 14th November, and for the purpose of assisting the Mission. Livingstone, Zambesi Expedition, 108
[64] Ross, 169
[65] In spite of their differences with the mission, some of the leadership in the Blantyre Synod of the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian come from Yao families associated with the church since the 1880’s. Ross, 257
[66] Ross, 175
[67] The Yao had been attacking Manganja villages and capturing the inhabitants to sell to the Portugese slave-traders creating enmity between the two. Ross, 172
[68] Livingstone viewed the use of necessary force as being quite legitimate if in the self-defence of his family and friends. “Our blood boils at the very thought of our wives, daughters or sisters being touched—we, as men with human feelings, would unhesitatingly fight to the death, with all the fury in our power.” Livingstone, Zambesi Expedition, 114
[69] Ross, 173
[70] Ross, 187
[71] Ross, 187
[72] Livingstone, Zambesi Expedition, 114
[73] Ross, 182
[74] http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page32.html
[75] Worcester, 97
[76] Worcester, 123
[77] Worcester, 124
[78] People misunderstood him, people attacked his reputation, laid false charges against him, and the Christian and secular worlds drifted in and out of praise and denigration of him. Nothing unusual given the work and environment he was in and quite the normal pattern for a disciple of Jesus!
[79] Although his body was returned to England his heart was buried by his friends in Africa. http://www.mrdowling.com/610-livingstone.html
[80] http://www.believersweb.org/view.cfm?ID=74
29th May 2006
ABSTRACT
This essay seeks to investigate the successes and failures of the work of David Livingstone from the perspective of his cross-cultural relationships. A man blessed with gifts enabling him to excel in the area of human relationships, David Livingstone is a highly suitable candidate to investigate this topic. He developed many relationships during his long career as a missionary and it is argued here that Livingstone had many more successes than failures. Of the reported failures, some are a result of jealous co-workers, some are unfounded, and some are the result of his own human faults and oversight.
Introduction
David Livingstone (1813-1873) is recognised in history as one of the greatest explorers the world has ever known. He has been compared with the likes of Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus and Neil Armstrong. It is rare for a man of God to be such a giant of both the secular and the Christian worlds. Livingstone was used by God to open up Africa to both civilization and more importantly to the truth about Jesus Christ. [1]
This article seeks to learn about Livingstone by focussing on the successes and failures of his life, especially from the perspective of his cross-cultural relationships. A man blessed with gifts enabling him to excel in the area of human relationships, David Livingstone developed many relationships during his long career as a missionary and explorer and it is argued here that Livingstone had many more successes than failures. Of the reported failures, some are a result of jealous co-workers, some are unfounded, and some are the result of his own human faults and oversight.
Certainly, there are many types of relationships one has when involved in cross-cultural ministry. Livingstone maintained a wide range of human relationships and in general seemed to be gifted with inter-personal skills on this front.
Not to discount the importance of his pre-departure relationships, we begin h
with a brief glimpse of some of the influencing relationships beginning mostly from the time of his ordination as a missionary.[2]
HOME RELATIONSHIPS
Initially[3] Livingstone seemed to enjoy a workable relationship with the Directors of the London Missionary Society. At times they endowed him with independence and trusted his decisions, for which Livingstone was very thankful: “I have much pleasure in acknowledging my obligations to the gentlemen composing that body for always acting in an enlightened spirit, and with as much liberality as their constitution would allow.”[4]
Livingstone demonstrated well, throughout his career, the importance of relationships back home. Much of his life-work is available to us today through his journals,[5] his books and, sometimes in a more telling form through the letters he wrote to people back home. [6]
One of the first letters he wrote back home was to his friend, Rev. G.D. Watt, who himself was preparing to become a missionary. From this letter we can ascertain the immediate dislike Livingstone had for the poor behaviour of some Europeans overseas.[7]
Proving his ability to assess an inter-relational situation very quickly, he soon discerned there were two types of allegiance among the missionaries in Cape Town: one toward the colonists and one toward the natives. After noticing the poor behaviour of some of the missionaries, Livingstone instinctively chose the side defending the natives against the “unrighteous encroachments of the settlers”.[8]
SECRETS OF HIS SUCCESS
I believe the main reason for his successful relations with people was because God had put his “goodness” and “comeliness” upon him.[9] I also think Livingstone himself would have attributed his overall relationship skills to this.
One of the key ingredients of his successful relationships was no doubt the respect and dignity with which he treated people in general, and Africans in particular. He would have stood out as being very different from many of his peers at the time, both the other missionaries, as well as the Dutch and Portuguese[10] colonists, many of whom may have looked down on the natives as being second class humans.
Time and again it seems evident that the way he viewed all men as having equal dignity earned him a powerful influence everywhere he went. His, “considerate and conciliatory”[11] treatment of everyone from chiefs to ordinary people was repaid by trust and respect.[12] Livingstone’s “genial address, simple and fearless manner, and transparent kindliness formed a spell which rarely failed.”[13]
His love of humour and playful way of dealing with people helped to break the ice and made people feel at ease with him. He was polite, had a respectful way of talking to people and was very forgiving.[14]
He believed in the “power of kindness”,[15] showed no condescension, and saw in black and white “a brother man, made in the image of God, and therefore to be treated with courtesy and respect.”[16]
He had a love for souls which is evident in men of God throughout the generations. There was a genuine “depth and tenderness of his love”, which was reciprocated by, “the affection which these poor fellows bore him in return.”[17] Personally, I think this is the key aspect which provided Livingstone with a winning way with nearly everyone he met.[18]
Another of his character traits which goes hand in hand with his respect for people, and which no doubt contributed to his gift for forming lasting relationships, was his deep concern for justice and human rights. This is nowhere better illustrated than in regard to his concern for, and efforts in dismantling, the slave trade. He often mentioned this in his letters, and this assisted in alerting the world to this atrocious situation, which Livingston called "the open sore of Africa."[19]
For the first nine years Livingstone devoted himself to evangelising the “uncivilized and rude barbarians”[20] in the Bakuena[21] country, about 900 miles north of Cape Town. He initially stayed in the home of his future father-in-law, Mr. Robert Moffat,[22] but soon turned his attention to the north.
Livingstone always endeavoured to learn the local languages and customs, an act which engendered much respect from the natives. For example, he once spent six months in isolation near Shokuane[23] learning all he could about the language and culture of the natives, especially the group called the Bakwains. Of this six-month period he says it, “has proved of incalculable advantage in my intercourse with them ever since.”[24]
Another aspect that was advantageous was his determination to be as useful as possible, maybe as a way of winning over the people. Some of the tasks tackled during his missionary life include such things as building a canal, gardening, building houses, mechanical work and working with iron and steel.[25] His medical knowledge was an important relationship tool too, allowing him access which may otherwise not have been available.[26]
He formed many robust relationships with native chiefs. These included Sekomi, a chief of the Bamangwato, who requested from Livingstone a potion of sorts to change his heart.[27] Salvation in a bottle! Another chief, of the Bakaa, a tribe which had murdered a trader and his company, was won over by Livingstone’s manner, and the missionary was even granted an escort by the chief’s son upon departing from them.[28]
One of the greatest friendships[29] Livingstone formed in Africa was with Sechele, the chief of the Bakwains, who, upon being told the Gospel remarked to Livingstone: “Since it is true that all who die unforgiven are lost forever, why did your nation not come to tell us of it before now?”[30]
Livingstone spoke of the two men being “drawn” [31] to each other and of his remarkable intelligence. In 1844 Livingstone wrote to the Directors with some good news about his friend Sechele: “An event that excited more open enmity than any other was the profession of faith and subsequent reception of the chief into the church.”[32]
Upon being convicted he had too many wives, Sechele sent most of them away, in a kind and generous manner, but their families were angry and became bitter enemies. However, Sechele was later to become an asset to the spreading of the gospel as a teacher of his people.[33] He also sent some of his own children to be educated by Livingstone’s father-in-law, thus extending the future influence from his conversion.[34]
It was not only the chiefs Livingstone befriended. He made friends with everyone he came in contact with. His honesty, kindness, and obvious respect for them resulted in the natives generally placing in Livingstone a great deal of trust.[35]
Two close relationships he formed in Africa were with two of his attendants, Susi and Chumah, “who had been with him long and loved him well.”[36] On at least one occasion they were the only servants to stick with Livingstone in the face of hardship.[37]
Upon Livingstone’s death from fever and an aggravated form of dysentery,[38] they were determined to convey his body to Zanzibar, something they finally achieved after nine perilous and difficult months, demonstrating, I believe, the genuineness of their love and affection for this great man. Most servants would have simply up and left as soon as the source of employment had disappeared.[39]
Remarking on the relationship between the natives and the missionaries, Livingstone said his group exercised no authority or control over the natives at all but simply attempted to influence them by friendly persuasion and by using “kind conversation as well as…public instruction.”[40]
Although Livingstone is remembered much as a pioneer, he was also successfully involved in the work of evangelism. A letter to his father on 13th July, 1842, shows his knack for developing relationships was also being put to good use to immediate effect by the Lord: “Souls are gathering in continually… Twenty-four were added to the Church last month...”[41]
FAMILY
As used by God as he was, Livingstone was still a mere man, and as such he had his failings. One of the most often cited is his apparent neglect of his family.
Some would say this was biblically justified because he was so devoted to God’s work,[42] however when one considers his family was also God’s work for him, one can easily agree this was indeed an area of failure.
His children appear to have led a life somewhat distant from their father and probably came to know him through the newspapers, as they were raised by “Trustees” in England.[43] However, it can be ascertained from Livingstone’s writings he had an obvious love and concern for his wife and children.[44]
In fairness to him I would note it was culturally common in his era for children to be raised away from home in boarding schools or by people other than the parents, such as governesses. Upon reflection of his life, one of his greatest regrets was that he did not devote more time to playing with his children.[45]
Livingstone’s wife Mary was a very capable woman, making butter, soap, candles and clothes,[46] as well as teaching children. [47]They enjoyed a sporadically happy marriage and family life[48] which began well at Mabotsa, but this was not to last.
Livingstone soon had a painful and bitter clash with a fellow missionary and was accused of “acting unfairly”, and “assuming to himself more than was his due.”[49] These charges against him were used to discredit Livingstone among missionaries and his Directors back home in England.
Although he felt the accusations were unjust, rather than allow a scandal to develop in front of the native unbelievers he decided to leave Mabotsa, the house, school building and gardens which he had built himself and which had cost him dearly financially. No doubt with the sour taste of knowing that the man who would now enjoy the fruits of his labour was his unjust accuser,[50] he and his bride departed for a new home. Showing the mark of a true citizen of Heaven he wrote, “paradise will make amends for all of our privations and sorrows here.”[51]
His new home was to be 40 miles away, where his friend Sechele invited him to come and be his missionary. He did not remain here, in Chonuane, for very long however, due to lack of rain, and soon departed for Kolobeng. His strong relationship with the natives can be seen by their reaction to the news that he was leaving: the following morning they were all preparing to go with him![52] This they did, including Sechele, who all packed up and accompanied Livingstone to Kolobeng.[53]
Livingstone had a strained relationship with the Boers and in April 1852, he decided that because the Boers would be an obstruction to teaching the natives at Kolobeng, he would continue his northward explorations. To protect his family from this unhealthy region he decided to send them home to England and return alone to continue the work. This absence was intended to be for two years, however it was closer to five years. [54]
One of the other long absences endured by Livingstone and his wife was for four years from 1858 when she had returned to Scotland to be with their children. Following a period of great loneliness, depression and intense longing for her husband, she returned to Africa in January 1862.
Gossip was another area of distress to Livingstone. He endured rumours of all sorts, some which would end up in newspapers in England and no doubt be enlarged by the media there. Some were very personal and close to home, one time even involving rumours and slander about Mary, apparently spread by the missionary women, which he was quick to dismiss out of hand but which caused him and Mary much distress.[55]
In spite of this, he and Mary were very close in the weeks following. Once again, their happiness was not to last, as Mary’s “eyes were closed in the sleep of death”[56] from malaria on 27th April, 1862 at Shupanga. This caused much despair and sadness for Livingstone, who appeared paralysed by grief.[57]
Failures, FLAWS AND FELLOW MISSIONARIES
Apart from family problems, Livingstone had arguments, disagreements and personality clashes with various people, as one would expect in difficult circumstances and conditions. When travelling and establishing new mission centres there is the almost constant need for decisions to be made. In this environment it is important to have strong leadership. With this come power struggles, disagreements and heated disputes. As you would expect, given the environment of pioneering Africa, many of the newly arriving missionaries also had strong personalities.[58]
Possibly the greatest failure that Livingstone himself may admit as such, was in the summer of 1861. He shot, and possibly killed, one or more of the violent slave-traders called the Ajawas, who were marching captured slaves through Malawi as well as attempting to enslave some of the local Manganja,[59] whom Livingstone was trying to evangelise. He felt deeply the consequences of his actions, as evident from a comment in one of his letters, “the shepherd ought not to kill his own sheep.”[60]
As far as Livingstone’s failings which his companions recorded, one considered his “greatest flaw”[61] was his compulsion. He was incredibly determined, a trait which I would prefer to see as being a gift rather than a flaw, however one of his most loyal companions, Dr. John Kirk, said it made him “a most unsafe leader. He never thinks of getting back. All he cares for is accomplishing his object at any risk whatever.”[62]
Another of his numerous companions was fellow missionary Bishop Charles Mackenzie. Not long after meeting up with Livingstone and Kirk in February 1861,[63] the three men were arguing about which direction to travel in and what they were going to do. Mackenzie was so incensed he even drafted a formal letter refusing to go where Livingstone and Kirk wanted to go!
This example was later used by many writers to insist that Livingstone was too authoritarian and could not get on with anyone who disagreed with him. However they over-looked the ongoing and enduring friendship of these men, albeit with their fair share of ups and downs.[64]
Once, when approaching a Yao[65] settlement near Zomba, Livingstone had in his group a number of Manganja (from what is now the Chikwawa[66] region of Malawi). Animosity between the two tribes[67] resulted in fighting between them during which Livingstone’s men killed six Yao. [68]
Livingstone warned Mackenzie they should not get involved in a Yao-Manganja war, and was still hopeful of evangelising the Yao peacefully. However after Livingstone’s departure, Mackenzie disregarded this advice and became involved in a series of wars against the Yao on the side of the Manganja. Many of Livingstone’s critics blamed these wars entirely on Livingstone. [69]
After much hardship, Livingstone’s brother Charles requested he be allowed to return home to England, a request granted by Livingstone, who also suggested that Kirk, who had long wanted to return home, should leave at the same time.
Kirk allegedly wrote quite disparagingly about Livingstone for some time after his return to England, even though Livingstone maintained he was a friend, even naming a mountain range after him in Malawi, called Kirks Range.[70] His apparent criticism was used to publicly attack Livingstone as being incompetent and even dishonest. One wonders how much of this was invented or dramatised by the media or heightened by jealousy!
Enjoying periods of positive publicity, he also received much negative publicity in England, depending, I think, on the mood of the fickle media.[71] Another missionary, James Stewart, returned to England and apparently added to this negative publicity as an active critic of Livingstone. Yet he was thought of highly enough by Livingstone to have been requested to conduct the funeral service for Mary![72]
Stewart seemed to be in sharp disagreement about the route which Livingstone had decided on to open trade to Malawi. However, 12 years later Stewart himself was to organise the team which successfully established the Livingstonia mission using that very route. [73]
A COMMENT FROM A SCEPTIC
Often a good source of material with which to bring balance to a story is from the sceptics of the subject. One of England’s biggest sceptics of missionary work in general in Livingstone’s day was Charles Dickens. In 1858, having read Livingstone’s “Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa”, Dickens wrote the following:
“I have been following a narrative of great dangers and trials, encountered in a good cause, by as honest and as courageous a man as ever lived... Dr. Livingstone's sensible independence of all those mischievous sectarian influences … and his fearless recognition of the absolute necessity of associating every legitimate aid, which this world's wisdom can give, with the work of preaching the Gospel to heathen listeners, are merits without parallel in the previous history of Missionary Literature....”[74]
A COMMENT FROM A FRIEND
Newspaper reporter and soon to become good friend, Henry Stanley, wrote much in praise of Livingstone. “God grant that if ever you take to travelling in Africa you will get as noble and true a man for your companion as David Livingstone!”[75]
“In him religion exhibits its loveliest features: it governs his conduct, not only towards his servants, but toward the natives, the bigoted Mohammedans, and all who come in contact with him.”[76]
Stanley records details such as how every Sunday Livingstone would gather his flock and conduct worship services in the local language. Livingstone himself did not consider he had great preaching gifts, but I think a more powerful form of evangelism came from Livingstone’s life itself, as is evident from the following comment from Stanley: “In 1871 I went to him as prejudiced as the biggest atheist in London…mine was awakened seeing his piety, his gentleness, zeal, his earnest, and how he went quietly about his business, I was converted by him, although he had not tried to do it.”[77]
CONCLUSION
I would consider it to be quite normal that Livingstone had his share of relationship problems, misunderstandings, difficulties, fears and pressures.
[78] Overall, I would conclude that given the prolific number of relationships he established, the personality clashes, misunderstandings and other problems pale into insignificance when compared with the overwhelming majority of highly successful and enduring relationships.
Given the huge success of this man and his relationships, it really is not surprising to find that when he died he was given the longest funeral procession in history by the natives in Africa, as well as bringing London to a halt on 18th April, 1874 when, after his body was returned to England,[79] he was honoured by being buried at Westminster Abbey.[80]
What can we learn from Livingstone’s life? We can learn that imitating Christ works, even though ours can only ever be a weak imitation at best!
Bibliography:
Books:
Blaikie W.G. David Livingston, Heroes of the Faith. New Jersey: Barbour and Company, 1986.
Montefiore-Brice A. David Livingstone-His Labours and His Legacy. London: Partridge & Co.
Northcott C. Robert Moffat-Pioneer in Africa. London:Lutterworth, 1961, 173
Ross A.C. David Livingstone-Mission and Empire. London: Hambledon and London, 2002.
Stock S.G. Missionary Heroes of Africa. London: LMS, 1897.
Worcester J.H Jr. David Livingstone-First to Cross Africa with the Gospel. Chicago: Moody Press.
World Wide Web:
e-books:
Livingstone D, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa. Downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstonedetext97mtrav10.html
Livingstone D, The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death, (Vol I), edited by Horace Waller. Downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstoned1667216672-8.html
Livingstone D, The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death, (Vol II), edited by Horace Waller. Downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 20th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstoned1702417024-8.html
Livingstone D, Zambesi Expedition, downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstonedetext01zambs10.html
WEBSITES:
http://www.believersweb.org/view.cfm?ID=74
www.wholesomewords.org/biography/biorplivingstone.html
http://www.mrdowling.com/610-livingstone.html
http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page32.html
www.wholesomewords.org/missions/bliving11.html
http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page19.html from the source: David Livingstone: his life and his letters by George Seaver, 1957
Footnotes:
[1] http://www.believersweb.org/view.cfm?ID=74
[2] He was ordained on the 20th November 1840 in London and then departed England for Cape Town on board the ship “George” on the 8th December. W.G. Blaikie, David Livingstone, Heroes of the Faith (New Jersey: Barbour and Company, 1986) 53
[3] In later years there were some stresses in this relationship.
[4]Livingstone D, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, 63
downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstonedetext97mtrav10.html
[5] His first journals were sent home with Stanley and his remaining later ones survived due to the safekeeping by his native servants Chumah and Susi. Livingstone D, The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death Vol I, edited by Horace Waller. Downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstoned1667216672-8.html
[6] One aspect of Livingstone’s character, evident in his writing, was his honesty. This, along with his devoted spiritual side, made him an insightful and trustworthy recorder of events, especially those surrounding his relationships. Blaikie, 54
[7] Blaikie, 53
[8] This was to become evident also in his future relationships. Blaikie, 55
[9] Livingstone D, The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death, (Vol II), edited by Horace Waller, 66 - Downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 20th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstoned1702417024-8.html
[10] Livingstone was appalled by the way the Dutch and Portuguese colonists treated the African people. http://www.mrdowling.com/610-livingstone.html
[11] Blaikie, 61
[12] He stood out in many different ways, such as insisting on paying for lodgings with natives, whereas the Arabs never did. Livingstone, The Last Journals Vol II, 25
[13] Blaikie, 65
[14] Worcester J.H Jr, David Livingstone-First to Cross Africa with the Gospel (Chicago: Moody Press), 119
[15] Worcester, 116
[16] Worcester, 117
[17] Blaikie, 78
[18] His respect for all people was evident also in the way he treated even those with whom he had differences. One such instance was when the Portuguese were under heavy attack from some rebels on the Zambesi expedition and Livingstone put himself in great danger to save the life of the Portuguese Governor. Livingstone D, Zambesi Expedition, 12 - downloaded as an e-book in PDF format on 19th May 2006 from: http://manybooks.net/titles/livingstonedetext01zambs10.html
[19] http://www.mrdowling.com/610-livingstone.html
[20] www.wholesomewords.org/missions/bliving11.html
[21] Also referred to as the Bakwain country by Livingstone, and as Bechuana by others such as Blaikie. Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 21
[22] Livingstone had originally desired to go to China, but at a meeting in Aldersgate Street in London, when Livingstone was 27, he heard Moffat speak about Africa and this sealed his new direction. C Northcott, Robert Moffat-Pioneer in Africa, (London:Lutterworth, 1961) 173
[23] Where Sechele lived. Livingstone. Missionary Travels, 21
[24] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 21
[25] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 27
[26] Blaikie, 65
[27] Blaikie, 63
[28] Blaikie, 64
[29] Worcester, 18
[30] Blaikie, 69
[31] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 23
[32] Blaikie, 104
[33] S.G Stock, Missionary Heroes of Africa. (London:LMS, 1897), 78; and Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 23
[34] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 74
[35] One such example is a group from chief Sekeletu who upon hearing of his approach sought out Livingstone to ask how much the price of a horse ought to be. Not trusting the white traders, who had charged 6 tusks per horse, they had heard of Livingstone and were happy to trust him as a fair man. Livingstone, Zambesi Expedition, 74
[36] Worcester, 103
[37] Livingstone, The Last Journals Vol II, 25
[38] A Montefiore-Brice, David Livingstone-His Labours and His Legacy, (London: Partridge & Co) 133
[39] Chuma and Susi were later brought to England where they were of assistance to Horace Waller in the editing of “The Last Journals”. Livingstone, The Last Journals Vol I, 5
[40] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 26
[41] Blaikie, 68. However, the conversions were not consistent, and there were times when he despaired at their scarcity. Blaikie, 93
[42] As does the article at: http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page19.html from the source: David Livingstone: his life and his letters by George Seaver, 1957
[43] Ross A.C, David Livingstone-Mission and Empire (London: Hambledon and London, 2002), 188
[44] On one occasion, for example, he completely changed his travel plans to take his sick children into a climate more conducive to rehabilitation. Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 53
[45] A problem he puts down to being, “generally so exhausted by the mental and manual labour of the day that in the evening there was no fun left in me.” www.wholesomewords.org/missions/bliving11.html
[46] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 27
[47] www.wholesomewords.org/missions/bliving11.html
[48] Sporadically because he was away from his family for long periods of times and seemed to have his priorities wrong. He correctly had God as his first priority but then placed his work before his family, no doubt much to their detriment. When they were together however they were very happy.
[49] Blaikie, 91
[50] “The brother with whom he had the difference lived to manifest a very different spirit.” Blaikie, 92
[51] Blaikie, 92
[52] Worcester, 21
[53] Stock, 76
[54] Livingstone, Missionary Travels, 61
[55] Ross, 177-178 and Worcester, 68
[56] Livingstone, Zambesi Expedition, 114
[57] He wrote many letters during the following weeks, many reflecting his deep love for Mary, and despite their many years of separation, showing that it was indeed a strong relationship. Ross, 179
[58] The nature of the pioneering and adventurous mission work in Africa would have attracted fairly tough people, many possibly hoping to make a name for themselves, having been reading about all of Livingstone’s adventures, and many being natural leaders themselves, therefore leading to clashes.
[59] Described by Livingstone as in their “primitive state” the Manganja would reciprocate gifts generously, eg, a piece of cloth for a goat. Livingstone, The Last Journals Vol I, 60
[60] http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page19.html
[61] http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page19.html
[62] Kirk once wrote: I can come to no other conclusion than that Dr L. is out of his mind”. See Ross 180 and http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page19.html
[63] He arrived on the 14th November, and for the purpose of assisting the Mission. Livingstone, Zambesi Expedition, 108
[64] Ross, 169
[65] In spite of their differences with the mission, some of the leadership in the Blantyre Synod of the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian come from Yao families associated with the church since the 1880’s. Ross, 257
[66] Ross, 175
[67] The Yao had been attacking Manganja villages and capturing the inhabitants to sell to the Portugese slave-traders creating enmity between the two. Ross, 172
[68] Livingstone viewed the use of necessary force as being quite legitimate if in the self-defence of his family and friends. “Our blood boils at the very thought of our wives, daughters or sisters being touched—we, as men with human feelings, would unhesitatingly fight to the death, with all the fury in our power.” Livingstone, Zambesi Expedition, 114
[69] Ross, 173
[70] Ross, 187
[71] Ross, 187
[72] Livingstone, Zambesi Expedition, 114
[73] Ross, 182
[74] http://www.heroesofhistory.com/page32.html
[75] Worcester, 97
[76] Worcester, 123
[77] Worcester, 124
[78] People misunderstood him, people attacked his reputation, laid false charges against him, and the Christian and secular worlds drifted in and out of praise and denigration of him. Nothing unusual given the work and environment he was in and quite the normal pattern for a disciple of Jesus!
[79] Although his body was returned to England his heart was buried by his friends in Africa. http://www.mrdowling.com/610-livingstone.html
[80] http://www.believersweb.org/view.cfm?ID=74